Why 3-phase is 400 V, not 690 V
Three 230 V phases do not simply add up.
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Each phase is 230 V to neutral, but the phases are 120° apart. The voltage between two phases is 230 × √3 ≈ 400 V. That is why a 3-phase motor is rated 400 V while a lamp between one phase and neutral still gets 230 V.
The 4 % voltage-drop rule
Long, thin cables quietly steal voltage.
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Every metre of cable has resistance, so the load receives less than the supply voltage. Many designs keep the drop within about 4 % (≈ 9 V on 230 V). If it is higher, use a bigger cable size or a shorter route. Motors and LED drivers are the first to complain.
Breaker vs cable: who protects whom
The breaker exists to protect the cable.
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Check the chain Ib ≤ In ≤ Iz: design current ≤ breaker rating ≤ cable capacity. A 32 A breaker on a cable that can only carry 24 A will let the cable overheat before it trips.
Power factor: the hidden current
Same kW, more amps.
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Motors draw extra reactive current. With I = P ÷ (V × pf), a 2 kW motor at pf 0.8 on 230 V draws about 10.9 A instead of 8.7 A. Cables and breakers must be sized for the real current, not just the kW.
Solar strings: cold Voc, hot Vmp
Panels change voltage with temperature.
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On a cold morning the open-circuit voltage rises, and it must stay below the inverter's maximum DC voltage. On a hot afternoon the working voltage falls, and it must stay above the MPPT minimum. A good string size satisfies both.
Series vs parallel in one minute
Why one bad bulb used to kill the whole string.
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In series, the same current flows through every part and voltages add up, so one break stops everything. In parallel, every branch gets the same voltage and currents add up. Houses are wired in parallel so each appliance works on its own.